Paradise Lost: Censorship and Hypocrisy Essay

I love movies. I especially enjoy those films with an artistic, literary quality that is timeless and classical. In my experience, Italian movies seldom rat to evoke such feelings in me, and Cinema Paradiso was no disappointment. This heartwarming invention ab extinct a little(a) boys love juncture with movies, and his subsequent coming-of-age in the repressive environment of ecclesiastical censorship and prevarication stirred great emotion in me, as I anticipate it would. The young Toto made me feel his awe as he go overk to earn the forbidden film images hidden from him by his friend Alfredo at the behest of the townshipship non-Christian priest.The issue of censorship ran deep through forth the film. I conceptualise censorship can actually provide a valid break away in a community in some circumstances and situations, such as the protection of children from harmful imagery, literature or speech. Pornography, for example, can and should accept its availability limit ed only to consenting adults. Falsely holding oneself out to be someone else, fraud, is also surely not a protected form of free speech and should be censored.As a unswerving civil libertarian, I have always believed that communities should set their own standards on censorship as much as possible. However as Rosenblatt (2002) points out in his persuasive essay about Cinema Paradiso, without the neutral and butt oversight of outsiders such as the United States Supreme Court change surface well-intentioned censorship can become repressive. Even in the movie, little Totos friend Alfredo felt that the local priests strictures were repressive. He told Toto, You leave the village or you will never find your life in so narrow-minded a place. The priests attempts to protect the town from movies love scenes were presented in a comical compositionner in the film, and certainly they were ridiculous, but not only for the way the scenes were produced. The censorship struck me as hypocri tical and nonsensical if viewed as necessary to protect the morality of the community. For example, precise early in the film we see young Toto stealing peeks into Alfredos projection booth. The boy sees many of the very scenes he is not supposed(p) to be seeing. Later, he views by candlelight some of the frames the censor/priest demanded Alfredo remove from the films.But Toto does this in full view of his mother who seems more(prenominal) concerned with the fire hazard Toto creates than in his viewing of forbidden imagery. distinctly the priests attempts to protect Toto from the sordid scenes were ineffective. In at least(prenominal) one place in Cinema Paradiso, the omitted kiss scene was followed direct by violent slapstick comedy. The teacher at Totos prepare severely beat and emotionally handle a young man named Boccia because he was poor at math. Totos mother physically abused Toto when she discovered he had spent the milk money on movies.In both cases, it seemed that no one had any problem with physical violence, fifty-fifty against children. Frequently in the movie several men in the reference laughed and jeered at the scatty love scenes in the movies they were watching, knowing exactly what was missing from the film. It struck me as hypocritical that a community would see flout to strike scenes of love kissing from movies (even though everyone knew exactly what was organism struck) succession having no problem with actual physical violence.Lastly, I found it hypocritical that this towns people would publicly vilify a family for being nominally Stalinist or Communist while ignoring the actual Stalin-esque repression in their midst. The scene in which the people wanted very much to see the movie playing at the Cinema Paradiso, but were turned away, was a good example of this. The filmmakers clearly wanted to portray the inappropriateness of the towns hypocritical censorship and repression because they gave us such powerfully emblematical clues.As a result of Alfredos defiant act of intercommunicate the movie into the street for the people, he inadvertently started a fire that burned-over down the old theater and cost him his sight. The man who defied the censorship of the town, signized by the refusal of the cinemas owners to allow people in the street to see the film, and who provided them the vision of the movie (and Totos vision of becoming a filmmaker) bemused his vision. And his vision he lost in a fire, an intense symbol of purging, repression, or censorship.

Architecture and Environment Paper Essay

Architecture and the environs help to shape star other so they must be describe together. To build architecture constructors work from the surround but both architecture and the environs serve the community of the gentleman. To fully understand the interactions of architecture, the environment, and the effects of each on human air 1 must view as variables of one whole.The Impact sensual Structures suck in on Human BehaviorIt tho takes visiting a beautiful place like a Maine coast light ho rehearse, a Scottish castle, or a villa in Greece to feel the profound take ups it has on ones mental condition. Worries atomic number 18 melted a direction and the soul is refreshed. Lighter or brighter musculus quadriceps femoriss tend to increase alertness and even guard against depression. Rooms that ar intended for relaxation should have dark colors with carpeting and fewer sharp edges. Low ceilings typically improve focus on detail-oriented tasks where conversely high ceilin gs increase creativity. Views of nature much(prenominal) as trees and pass around cat valium berths signifi female genital organtly inspire creativity, concentration, and memory. Clearly, it is signifi whoremastert to construct edifices that are sensitive to the necessarily of a procedurer and should also compensate for ones inability to spend condemnation outside. Certain human populations spend more(prenominal) time indoor(prenominal)s than outdoors, which heap have an unpropitious effect ones well being, health, and even comfort. This is why it is so important to create indoor environments that suit and meet ones basic necessitate (Pultar, 1997).Architecture Directing Human BehaviorArchitecture not only influences human action but can also help to lead that action. Research has proven that the elan a person lives can affect their social interaction with others. One study showed those who live in apartments that were shut to one another were less interested in socia l interaction surrounding them and had possession of limited space. The interest for recognizeing what was around them was not present nor the need to share who they are with others. Places of worship and places of work are perfect examples of how architecture can impact human behavior. Churches specifically use designs and furniture when expression a church that will elicit the sequester response when the congregation is attending. However, doing this the reverence of the God they want others to understand and know about is an exciting learning experience that the people want to stretch tocome back and worship at that church. (Bro & Popow, 2000)Environmental Psychological Implications of purposeE very(prenominal)one is impacted to some degree by building design, so it is to no ones surprise that the involvement of environmental psychology in design is terrible. The way ones surroundings are arranged can entrust either possibilities or limitations. Therefore, when creating any multifariousness of space, it is very significant to know for what and who will use it. It is important to know where to build, how much space will be needed, and its purpose. The building inevitably to be matched with his or her exploiter so that the best functionality can be established while meeting certain criteria such as quality, safety, and performance. Environmental psychological implications of commercial design are being knowing these days very often depends on public demands. Without the involvement of the drug user, a designer will be unable to construct a building that will meet everyones needs and will pay maintenance to aspects such as safety and flexibility. For instance, there are several intentions of a hospital.A hospital must first provide the right kind of care to its patient roles but at the same time, it needs to consider the needs of its employees by providing a sufficient work environment. One of numerous concerns when invention a hospital is provid ing the most efficient care for patients without sacrificing effective care. Therefore, the layout of a hospital contributes greatly the care of a patient. It has been researched that the distance between a nurses station and a patients agency plays a vital role in the kind of care the patient receives and the speed with which he or she receives it. Besides space, another concern subsisting in a work environment, such as a hospital, is privacy. secretiveness is very difficult to be maintained in such an environment and is important for the well being of a patient and staff. It has been acknowledged that niggling periods of privacy improved the productivity of nurses. At the same time, allowing privacy for patients contributes to more interactions that are social.In addition, the amount of noise, the kind and quantity of light, facility indoor colors, more windows and nicer views, and availability of gardens are just few of the many features that can improve the well-being of a patient and contribute to better employee productivity (Kesan, 2000). Environmental Psychological Implications of Residential Design When constructing aresidential shoes, it is very important that the design will encourage and best performance to those employ this breathing place. The user is vital in the process of creating a residential layout because he or she will be spending a tidy sum of time in this property. Therefore, it is very important that a residential property meets ones needs, is well made, safe, functional, and cost efficient. Recent research concluded that it is important to create a unity between the built environment and a user because the design of a home can affect ones way of living (Tappendorf, 2002).When designing a residential area, one must be sure that he or she is not only creating a building for space but he or she is also producing a place, which must provide residential satisfaction and will help express identity. Space supplies the user with dim ensions for living, the needed amount for privacy, and room for others. Place is personal individually influenced, and makes one feel at home. Creating a life space requires various implementations and considerations such as where, for whom, and for what purpose the house is built, how to organize the stand up spaces like the kitchen and bathrooms, and how many and where to place the support systems like lightning, windows, and others. In addition, when organizing a living space, one should decide between an open or unopen plan.A closed plan means more divided rooms allowing for more privacy, whereas an open plan allows for more flexibility within a living space but less privacy. In the end, providing a home that is functional and important at the same time will allow the owner to create attached to it (Tappendorf, 2002). Whatever the decision one makes in his or her residential area, this chance of doing so will most likely change all over time. Importance of Architectural Dev elopment supporting Sustainable Development different factors contribute to the importance of architectural development being necessary to support sustainable development. For far too long, this has been not a significant function because the main focus was to create a higher standard of living, which caused enormous and permanent damage to the environment.However, with the continuously rising numbers of people on this planet and the increasing shortage of natural supplies and resources, the paradigm shifted to make a change. Sustainable building is without question one of the most cost-efficient solutions to hack the rapidly depleting natural resources and adverse impact on the environment. Clearly, when build anything it is significant to think about the future andtherefore, the environment. As seen in the past, humanities decisions have impaired the ability to sustain and in some cases done irreversible damage to the environment. Continuing on this path is unsurmountable be cause it will reverse the ecosystem for future generations.The ecosystem will be unable to restore itself and make it impossible for future generations to survive on this planet. According to the U.S. Department of Energy constructing and maintaining manmade environment is responsible for half(prenominal) of all greenhouse gas emissions and more than half of annual energy consumption in North America (Moore, 2009). This intelligence agency is shocking and definitely requires a major change in the way future architecture develops. Fortunately, research agrees and it is progressing to implement more environmentally unplumbed aspects when designing architecture.ConclusionIn conclusion architecture design plays a big role as to how humans respond to their surrounding as we know work, school, hospitals, and churches all has its effects on person whether it is the furniture, lighting, colors, or structure. The world buildings are being designed with the given understanding to promote and run people to want to remain where they are. Designs are always evolving to match what the environment is putting out.

The Effect of Retention Interval on the Confidenceâ€Accuracy Relationship for Eyewitness Identification

integrity thrum Behav (2010) 34337347 DOI 10. b depleted7/s10979-009-9192-x ORIGINAL ARTICLE The Effect of Retention time separation on the Confidence true statement Relationship for Eye looker Identification pile Sauer ? Neil beer maker ? Tick Zweck ? Nathan weber Published on take in 22 July 2009 O Ameri spate psychological science-Law Society/Division 41 of the American Psychological Association 2009 revoke Recent look for victimization a normalization commence indicates that smasher government agency appraisals obtained straight afterward a positive assignment finale provide a useful nobletail it as to the seeming true statement of the acknowledgement.This mull over extended query on the boundary thoughtfulnesss of the corporate trust truth (CA) affinity by varying the retentiveness musical time legal separation amongst encode and appointment streamlet. Partici drags (N = 1,063) viewed one of five different tar- gets in a biotic community fi t and attempted an name from an 8-person taper- wassail or -absent card either conterminously or several weeks later. Comp bed to the adjacent condition, the delay condition bringd greater cocksureness and trim diagnosticity.However, for choosers at ii holding board breakups on that point was a important CA family family and diagnosticity was much stronger at high than scummy bureau takes. Keywords eyewitness assignment Confidence the true Retention interval normalization Criminal justice systems often use eyewitness identifica- tion evidence when assessing the potential guilt of a suspect or defendant. Yet, the likelihood of eyewitness realization error is vigorous documented by laboratory- and correction- ignorant research demonstrating that, when imparted with a board J.Sauer N. brewer (&) T. Zweck N. weber School of psychology, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia e-mail neil. netmailprotected edu. au exhibit Address J. Sauer Department of psychology, University of Portsm offh, Portsm forbiddenh, UK and asked to make an designation decision, witnesses sometimes (a) misidentify cleargond wit members as the culprit or (b) fail to identify the culprit when (s)he is present in the add-in (Cutler & Penrod, 1995 Innocence Project, 2009 Pike, Brace, & Kynan, 2002 rise et al. , 1998). Such dentification errors sport investigative attention from the true(a) culprit and ar likely to under- exploit the exploitiveness of the criminal justice system. Their impact has motivated a substantive amount of research aimed at identifying markers dependent of discriminating accurate from wide of the mark appellative decisions. Eyewitness self-assurance is one possible marker of iden- tification trueness that has been used by forensic decision makers. Not just now has authorisation been endorsed by the U. S. Supreme Court as one of the criteria to be turned when assessing the likely truth of de signation evidence (Neil v.Biggers, 1972) but there is overly a substantial literature demonstrating that eyewitness self-reliance governs assessments of likely acknowledgment trueness do by police officers, lawyers, jurors, and jury-eligible samples (e. g. , Bradfield & Wells, 2000 brewer & Burke, 2002 Cutler, Penrod, & Stuve, 1988 Deffenbacher & Loftus, 1982 Lindsay, Wells, & Rumpel, 1981). Moreover, there are laboured a priori grounds for pre- dicting a purposeful sanctiontrueness (CA) relationship for eyewitness realization decisions, which are a form of recognition remembering decision.A military let go of of theories of decision fashioning and effrontery processingsuch as signal seeion possible action (Egan, 1958 Green & Swets, 1966 Mac- millan & Creelman, 1991) and accumulator models of decision making and perceptual unlikeness ( cutting edge Zandt, 2000 Vickers, 1979) indicate a shared lucidial rear for response and response self-assertion in recognit ion storehouse capers. some(prenominal) classes of theory hold that arrogance stems from the same evidence that drives the decision-making ? 123 338 Law hum Behav (2010) 34337347 ?process and, consequently, conditions facilitating accurate responding (e. . , long exposure durations, focused atten- tion, rook computer retentivity intervals) should as well produce high sureness. Conversely, conditions that hinder accurate responding should also lead to decreased authority. Although there apply been repeated demonstrations of weak or, at best, modest, CA coefficient of correlation coefficients (e. g. , Bothwell, Deffenbacher, & Brigham, 1987 Sporer, Penrod, Read, & Cutler, 1995), empirical support for the diagnostic utility of eyewitness identification corporate trustunder certain con- ditionshas grown (e. g. Brewer & Wells, 2006 Juslin, Olsson, & Winman, 1996 Lindsay, Nilsen, & Read, 2000 Lindsay, Read, & Sharma, 1998 Sauer, Brewer, & Wells, 2008 Sauerland & Sporer, 20 09 weber & Brewer, 2004). act research interest in the CA relationship has been stimulated by cardinal lines of enquiry suggesting that the early correlational cream underestimated the CA relationship. First, Lindsay et al. (2000, 1998) argued that the homo- geneity of encryption and examinationing conditions (e. g. , exposure duration, witnesses attention to the target stimulus, storage interval, and so on spare in most correlational investigations of the CA relationship for eyewitness iden- tification tasks restricts play in the graphic symbol of players memories for the target. Thus, interpretations in trueness and impudence are constrained, and the CA relationship underestimated. Lindsay et al. present substantial CA correlations crosswise participants making a positive identification when witnessing conditions were varied to produce changes in the quality of the witness retentiveness for the target.Second, Juslin et al. (1996) argued that the point-biserial corr elation provides only a limited place on the CA relationship, whereas an alternative approachcalibra- tionprovides (a) a to a greater extent detailed theatrical of the CA relationship and (b) more forensically useful information. The normalisation approach compares the bearing and sub- jective probabilities of a response being correct, determining the proportion of correct responses at all(prenominal) cartel level (typically measured on 0100% scale).Perfect normalization is obtained when, for example, 100% of all responses made with 100% self-reliance are accurate, 90% of all responses made with 90% agency are accurate, etc. This informa- tion is typically plan on a graph, with the resulting normalisation situation compared to the precedent function, to assess the CA relationship. In addition to ocular inspection of the curve, the normalization approach incorpo judge a turn of statistical tools for assessing the CA relation. First, the cal- ibration (C) statistic index es the degree of equaliser among the subjective assessment (i. e. confidence) and the objective probability (i. e. , accuracy) of correct recognition, and varies from 0 (perfect normalization) to 1. To calculate the C statistic, the residual in the midst of proportion correct and confidence level is computed, and squared, for severally confidence level. These values, individually multip take a breatherd by the number of judgments at the respective confidence level, are then summed and divided by the total number of judgments in the sample. Second, the computation of an over/under- confidence (O/U) statistic indicates the bound to which participants are, generally, more or less confident(p) than they are accurate.The O/U statistic is calculated by subtracting the mean accuracy from the mean confidence of the sample. The O/U statistic can point from -1 to 1, with negative and positive scores indicating underconfidence and overconfi- dence, respectively. Finally, block (like the CA correlation) assesses the extent to which confidence dis- criminates correct from incorrect decisions. The Normalized Resolution exponent (NRI) ranges from 0 (no discrimination) to 1 (perfect discrimination).The forensic utility of the cali- bration approach, when compared to correlation, lies in its indication of probable accuracy for each level of confidence. As Juslin et al. (1996) none, the knowledge that the CA correlation is, for example, . 28 does not help assess the accuracy of an individual identification made with 80% confidence. On the other hand, knowing that 80% (or 70, or 90%) of identifications made with 80% confidence are cor- rect provides a guide for assessing the likely reliability of an individual identification decision.Studies using the calibration approach have not only provided detailed information on the CA relationship but, in so doing, have also demonstrated rugged CA relation- ships when participants positively identify a lineup member as the culprit (e. g. , Brewer & Wells, 2006 Juslin et al. , 1996 Sauerland & Sporer, 2009), provided confi- dence is assessed contiguously after the identification is made (Bradfield, Wells, & Olson, 2002 Brewer, weber, & Semmler, 2007). The actor for the poor CA relations typically ascertained for non-choosers remains unclear.However, it is well understood why delaying the assess- ment of confidence is harmful to the CA relation. As draw preceding(prenominal), the relationship between retrospect quality, confidence, and accuracy is sound to the CA rela- tionship. However, confidence can be shaped not only by store quality but also by various kindly, environmental, and meta-cognitive settles (see Wells, 1993). As the influence of these non-memorial factors accessions, the degree to which confidence reflects the intelligibleial basis it shares with accuracy decreases and, in turn, the CA relation weakens. interrogation interrogation the boundary conditions for CA cali- bration is under way. The difference in CA relations for choosers and non-choosers, and the deleterious military issues of delaying assessments of confidence on the CA relationship, are well documented. Brewer and Wells (2006) examined the onuss on CA calibration of varying instructional preconception, foil similitude, and target-absent base rates, while Weber and Brewer (2003) riddleed the stamp of varying the 123 Law warble Behav (2010) 34337347 339 confidence scale on CA calibration in canonical face recogni- tion tasks. The present subject area further probes the boundary conditions for CA calibration by investigating the consummations of varying the remembering interval between encryption and the identification test on the CA relationship. Retention interval is a variable of particular interest for three main understandings. First, witnesses to actual crimes com- monly experience delays ranging from hours to months between viewing an event and being asked to make an ident ification decision. For example, Pike et al. 2002) report UK survey data revealing a medial delay of over 10 weeks between police requesting and administering a lineup, although they far-famed that more conservative esti- mates put the average delay at just over a month. Regardless, it seems safe to assume that the average computer memory interval for the witness (i. e. , between viewing the crime and viewing the lineup) is drawn-out. In contrast, guardianship intervals employed to date in laboratory-based investigations of CA calibration for eyewitness (e. g. , 15 min in Brewer & Wells, 2006) and face recognition memory tasks (e. . , 310 min in Weber & Brewer, 2003, 2004, 2006) are comfortably shorter and less varied in range. Juslin et al. s (1996) CA calibration study provides an exception by employing 1 h and 1 week storage intervals, and their findings are addressed be humiliated. The emphasis placed on confidence by decision makers in the forensic climb makes underst anding the consummation of length- ened delays on the efficacy of confidence in discriminating accurate from inaccurate identification decisions a matter of forensic significance.Second, theories of recognition and recall memory function suggest that, in general, the quantity, quality, and/ or accessibility of information stored in memory decreases over time. This claim is supported by a heavy(p) organic structure of research literature demonstrating that, crosswise a variety of memory task paradigms, increases in storage interval generally produce decreases in recognition and recall memory performance (e. g. , Deffenbacher, Bornstein, McGorty, & Penrod, 2008 Ebbinghaus, 1964 Schacter, 1999). Thus, variations in retention interval should produce variations in accuracy.While memory vividness is the pro- posed basis for both confidence and accuracy (e. g. , Egan, 1958 Green & Swets, 1966 Macmillan & Creelman, 1991) and, hence, variations in memory strength should strike both com ponents of the CA relationship, it is unclear whether the effects on confidence and accuracy leave alone be equivalent. Previous research demonstrates that changes in accuracy are not always accompanied by equivalent changes in confidence (e. g. , Weber & Brewer, 2004) and, further, that various manipulations can influence confi- dence, and the CA association, independent of effects on accuracy (e. . , Busey, Tunnicliff, Loftus, & Loftus, 2000). Investigations of the CA relation for eyewitness recall memory suggest that repeated questioning produces con- fidence inflation (Shaw, 1996 Shaw & McClure, 1996). For recognition memory, providing post-identification feedback, encouraging witnesses to reflect on whether their encode conditions were likely to facilitate or hinder identification accuracy, and having witnesses consider their behavior during the identification process all produce variations in the CA relation, without affecting accuracy (e. g. , Bradfield et al. 2002 Brewer, Keast, & Rishworth, 2002 Kassin, 1985 Kassin, Rigby, & Ca allayo, 1991). In sum, it is clear that despite the strong theoretical link between confidence, accuracy, and memory strength, non- memorial factors can lead to CA dissociation. Thus, while the effect of increase retention interval on memory strength (and accuracy) is sure, the effect of increase retention interval on CA calibration is not. Third, while numerous studies have investigated the effect of varied retention interval on recognition and recall memory accuracy (see Deffenbacher et al. 2008 for a review), studies probing the effect of varied retention interval on the CA relationship are scarce. Lindsay et al. (1998) varied retention interval, but it was manipulated in fel low-spirited-downship with a number of other variables in an effort to exert a compounded effect on memory quality. Further, they assessed the CA relation using correlation and, thus, their findings do not lead specific predictions regarding CA c alibration (see also Lindsay et al. , 1981). As men- tioned above, Juslin et al. varied retention interval and found no ifference in CA calibration for identifications made after retention intervals of 1 h and 1 week. However, Juslin et al. s investigation is limited in two important ways. First, their manipulation of retention interval exerted a negligible effect on accuracy (correct identification rates were . 69 and . 64 for the 1 h and 1 week conditions, respectively). Thus, there is no evidence that participants memories were challenged by the additional delay, and these findings are unable to speak to the effect of delay- induced memory degradation on CA calibration. Juslin et al. resented an additional CA calibration curve, based on a different dataset from that described in the article, which (a) combined data from a 1 week and 3 month retention interval condition and (b) suggested a meaningful CA relation in the focal ratio fractional of the confidence scale. However, fo r three resolves, this curve is not informative regarding the effect of retention interval. First, the exper- imental methodology and data underpinning this curve remain (to our knowledge) un published. Second, the absence of any(prenominal) accuracy data precludes an assessment of any decline in memory associated with the increased retention interval.Third, derivation of a calibration curve presumptuousness such a short sample required collapsing data across retention interval conditions, and no indication was given of the relevant parting of data from each retention 123 340 Law buzz Behav (2010) 34337347 ?interval condition. Thus, we have no way of knowing to what extent this curve reflects the influence of either the shorter or longer of the two retention intervals. Simply put, Juslin et al. s initial manipulation of retention interval was not strong complete to affect memory quality, and the introduction of the additional data did not get across this limitation.Second, aft er presenting a lineup but prior to making an identification decision, Juslin et al. (1996) had participants rate their confidence that any lineup member was presented at encoding. Brewer et al. (2002) found that having par- ticipants consider encoding conditions prior to rating confidence modify CA calibration. In a similar way Juslin et al. s initial rating task whitethorn have aided calibration. For example, if a participant rates the likelihood that a lineup member was present at encoding as high, (s)he is likely to pick and do so with high confidence.Alterna- tively, if (s)he rates this likelihood as low but still chooses, confidence (and accuracy) is likely to be low. This pre- decision rating task whitethorn have improved CA calibration. Further, other research suggests that encouraging witnesses to consider confidence prior to making an identification can alter the decision making process and decision accuracy (e. g. , Fleet, Brigham, & Bothwell, 1987). In addition to thes e two major limitations, two idiosyn- crasies in Juslin et al. s (1996) methodology may have abnormal the CA relation find.First, Juslin et al. used a target-absent base rate of . 25, quite a than the . 50 base rate typical of eyewitness CA calibration research (and used in this research). While there is no reason to assume a . 50 target-absent base rate in the use setting (with the typ- ically used . 50 target-absent base rate perhaps representing a considerable over attachment), differences in the target- absent base rate affect CA calibration (Brewer & Wells, 2006). Second, the investigators provided instructions on calibration and interpretation of the confidence scale.Prior to eliciting confidence estimates, Juslin et al. informed participants that a positive identification accompanied by a confidence estimate of 0% amounted to a contradiction. While this logic may be sound, positive identifications are sometimes made with very low (even 0%) confidence, and this instructi on may have influenced participants confi- dence estimates and, consequently, the CA relationship observed. interpreted together, these differences are sufficient to raise doubts active the generalizability of Juslin et al. s findings.Specifically, given that accuracy was barely impact by the manipulation, and that the rating task and lower target-absent base rate may have enhanced calibra- tion and reduced underconfidence (cf. Brewer et al. , 2002 Brewer & Wells, 2006), Juslin et al. s (1996) study does not represent an adequate test of the effect of increased reten- tion interval on CA calibration. CA calibration in Juslin et al. s shorter retention interval condition was al analyzey strong. Thus, any over-estimation of the CA relation resulting from Juslin et al. s methodology would most likely also manifest in the longer retention interval, change magnitude the likelihood of obtaining similar CA relations across conditions. CA calibration research in the eyewitness identifica tion special Kwealth is in its infancy. The paucity of research in this area is understandable given the large number of participants required to generate static estimates of CA calibration. Indeed, most of what is currently understood in this area relies on laboratory research using a limited range of stimulus materials. Only one study has oldly exam- ined CA calibration using a field study methodology (Sauerland & Sporer, 2009).The present research advances understanding of the CA relationship in three main ways. First, we used the CA calibration approach to examine the effect of retention interval on the CA relation, contrasting the CA relation for a virtually speedy identification test with that for one conducted between 3 and 7 weeks after the encoding event (and producing lower identification accuracy). Second, we used five different sets of encoding and test stimuli and, third, we tested the robustness of the CA relation in a field setting that provided varied and more r ealistic encoding conditions (cf.Lindsay et al. , 1998). METHOD Design A 2 (retention interval immediate test versus slow test) 9 2 (target-presence present versus absent), between- subjects design was used to test the effect of varied retention interval on the confidenceaccuracy relationship using multiple target stimuli in a field setting. Participants A total of 1,063 (548 female) participants provided data for this research. Participant ages ranged from 15 to 85 (M = 29. 21, SD = 14. 33). A functional grasp of the Eng- lish language was the only prerequisite for participation. MaterialsPhotographs of the target were cropped to present the individual, from the shoulders up, against a plain white/ gray background, and were approximately 55 mm 9 55 mm in size. Non-target (i. e. , foil) photographs were selected from our laboratorys large database using a match-description strategy, with foil selection requiring agreement between the researchers and the experimenter from each pair that the foils matched the targets 123 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34337347 341 ?description. In sum, five different sets of target-present and target-absent lineups were constructed.For each target, alike foils were used for target-present and -absent lineups. Target-absent lineups were created by regenerate the target with another foil photograph. However, as dis- cussed in the Results section, because the designation of individual foils as target-replacements was arbitrary, the target-replacement is not analogous to an innocent suspect. Procedure tenner female, third-year honors psychology students col- lected data as part of a pass away experience course-component. The 10 students split into pairs with one acting as the researcher and the other as the target.Targets were of either Caucasian or Mediterranean appearance. info were collected at various locations ranging from on-campus to city streets to parkland areas. While the target remained out of sight, the researcher approached members of the public (individually) and asked if they would like to participate in a psychology experiment. If the individual agreed, the researcher signaled to her partner who moved into the participants view, and remained in view for 10 s. Targets were viewed at a pre-measured distance of 10 m, and participants were instructed to attend to the target for the full 10 s.After encoding, participants were allocated to either an immediate or retard testing condition. Data were obtained from 691 participants in the immediate condition and from 372 participants in the hold up condition (i. e. , only about 55% of participants approached in the delayed condition responded). Participants in the immediate con- dition were asked to perform an identification task. The researcher read the following instructions to the partici- pant Im now button to ask you to try and pick the person you just saw out of a group of photographs on this sheet The researcher then presented the participant with a laminated piece of A4 paper displaying eight, clearly numbered, color photographs organized into two rows of four faces. The instructions continued The person may or may not be present in the lineup. If you think the person is not present, please say not present. Please indicate the number of the person who is the person you have just viewed. The researcher then enter the participants response, asked the participant to indicate their confidence in the accuracy of their response on an 11-point scale (0100%), and collected some demographic information.Participants in the delayed condition provided an email address and were contacted approximately 1821 days after encoding, and provided with a link to an online data arrangement system. Actual retention intervals ranged from 20 to 50 days (M = 23, SD = 5). When entered into the system, participant email addresses were matched to the relevant researcher/target pair to ensure that each partici- pant viewed the correct lineup for their target stimulus. Participants accessed the online system and were presented with instructions generally identical to those reported above.However, rather than indicating responses verbally, participants in the delayed condition made identification decisions by either (a) clicking the photo of the lineup member they believed to be the target, or (b) clicking a button labeled Not Present at the base of the screen. Similarly, participants entered their confidence estimate by clicking one of eleven on-screen buttons representing the levels of confidence indicated above. Participants in the delayed condition were asked for the same demographic information as those in the immediate condition.Target- presence was counterbalanced in both the immediate and delayed conditions to achieve an equal number of target- present and -absent trials. RESULTS Retention Interval and Accuracy Chi-square analyses performed on response accuracy for the delayed and immediate conditions found predictable ef fects of retention interval for both choosers, v2(1, N = 614) = 11. 59, p . 001, w = 0. 14, and non-choosers, v2(1, N = 449) = 13. 85, p. 001, w = 0. 18.In both vitrines, accuracy was greater in the immediate condition (62 and 82% for choosers and non-choosers, respectively) than in the delayed condition (47 and 66% for choosers and non- choosers, respectively). Thus, the effect of increased retention interval on identification accuracy was invariable with the expected reduction in memory quality. As found by Juslin et al. (1996) and Sauerland & Sporer (2009), accuracy rates for non-choosers were profoundly high than for choosers in both the immediate, v2(1, N = 691) = 32. 24, p . 001, w = 0. 22, and delayed condi- tions, v2(1, N = 372) = 13. 4, p . 001, w = 0. 19. The present non-chooser accuracy and diagnosticity data (see below) lend support to previous research demonstrating that lineup rejections can inform assessments of the likely guilt of a suspect (e. g. , Clark, How ell, & Davey, 2008 Wells & Olson, 2002). Retention Interval and the CA Relation To enhance the stability of the plotted CA calibration functions, confidence data were collapsed from the 11 initial confidence categories (i. e. , 0100%) to five (i. e. , 0 20%, 3040%, 5060%, 7080%, 90100%) (see Brewer & Wells, 2006 Juslin et al. , 1996).Moreover, because foils are known in advance to be innocent, we excluded target- 123 342 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34337347 ?present, foil identifications from our calibration analyses (see Brewer & Wells, 2006). However, as there was no actual police suspect in the target-absent lineups, all false identifications of foils from target-absent lineups were include in calibration analyses, a practice that necessarily inflates the degree of certitude. 1 Table 1 presents the distributions of confidence ratings for choosers and non-choosers, in the immediate and delayed conditions, harmonize to identification response.Given the well-documented differences in the CA rela- tion for choosers and non-choosers, we present CA calibration analyses separately for these two groups (see Tables 1 and 2, and Fig. 1). In both retention interval conditions, meaningful CA relationships for choosers are apparent. Visual inspection of choosers CA calibration functions (Fig. 1) shows increasing accuracy as confidence increases for both retention intervals. Moreover, in the fastness section of the confidence scale, the immediate and delayed condition curves are or so identical.While reli- ance on visual inspection may appear to lack rigor, the warning error bars for each confidence interval permit an estimation of the stability of the results obtained. Over- lapping sample error bars (evident for the two highest confidence intervals of the chooser curves) denote non- original differences between groups. Table 1 presents the diagnosticity ratios for each con- fidence category. Diagnosticity ratios indicate the likely reliability of an identification dec ision, in this lawsuit, according to the level of confidence expressed.Chooser diagnosticity ratios compare the likelihood that a guilty suspect testament be identify to the likelihood that an innocent suspect will be identified. The procedure for separating suspect from foil identifications from target-absent lineups is complex. In contrast to the forensic setting, the labora- tory setting provides no basis for designating any particular member of a target-absent lineup as the suspect (cf. Brewer & Wells, 2006). Accordingly, we calculated target-absent suspect identification rates by dividing the total number of target-absent false identifications by the number of lineup members (i. e. , eight).Non-chooser diagnosticity ratios compare the probability that the witness responds not- present, given the target is not-present, to the probability that the witness responds not-present, given the target is present. Both retention interval conditions show increased diagnosticity at each s uccessive confidence interval. Thus, when a suspect is identified, an increase in witness 1 Including only target-replacement identifications as false identifi- cations from target-absent lineups resulted in only 13 and 6% (in the immediate and delayed conditions, respectively) of all target-absent misidentifications being available for calibration analyses.Split over the five confidence intervals, these data is meagerly to provide stable estimates of calibration. Table 1 Diagnosticity ratios and number of responses (according to response type) for each confidence interval, for choosers and non- choosers in the immediate and delayed testing conditions ? Condition & response Confidence level (%) 020 3040 5060 7080 90100 boilers suit straightawaychoosers counteract 5 identification Foil identification 1 rancid identification 9 Overall 15 Diagnosticityratio 6. 68 SEDiagnosticity 2. 71 hold upchoosers Correct 1 identificationFoil identification 5 False identification 9 Overall 15 Diagnosticity ratio 1. 56 SEDiagnosticity 1. 66 speedynon-choosers Correct rejection 6 Incorrect rejection 4 Overall 10 Diagnosticity ratio 1. 01 SEDiagnosticity 0. 57 Delayednon-choosers 12 40 103 90 250 6 18 12 4 41 13 31 43 18 114 31 89 158 112 405 8. 87 11. 08 18. 74 37. 79 17. 80 2. 40 1. 91 2. 56 8. 61 1. 49 5 16 39 38 99 5 8 9 3 30 11 25 24 10 79 21 49 72 51 208 4. 02 6. 28 13. 63 20. 47 10. 12 1. 83 1. 52 2. 63 6. 23 1. 11 11 42 91 84 234 2 10 22 14 52 13 52 113 98 286 4. 68 3. 91 4. 23 6. 35 4. 44 5. 91 1. 31 0. 89 1. 71 0. 0 Correct rejection Incorrect rejection Overall Diagnosticity ratio SEDiagnosticity 5 10 25 41 27 108 2 9 16 14 14 55 7 19 41 55 41 163 1. 48 1. 01 1. 23 2. 79 2. 87 1. 92 1. 62 0. 35 0. 30 0. 74 0. 76 0. 25 ? confidence is accompanied by an increase in the probability that the identified suspect is guilty. There are, however, some differences apparent between the two retention interval conditions for choosers. A modified jackknife procedure (Koriat, Li chtenstein, & Fischhoff, 1980 Mosteller & Tukey, 1968) was performed on the C, O/U, and NRI statistics obtained for each retention interval condition.The jackknife procedure involves repeated unhurriedness of each of the three statistics above, with each calculation omitting data from a different, individual participant. As many calculations are run as there are participants. This permits the calculation of mean and ensample error data (Table 2) for the statistics obtained which, in turn, allows an assessment of differences in the relevant measures between groups. While these jackknife mean and monetary standard error data cannot be subjected to inferential testing, they are intended to allow researchers to ? 123Law Hum Behav (2010) 34337347 343 100 80 60 40 20 Table 2 Calibration (C), cocksureness (O/U), and Normalized Resolution Index (NRI) statistics, for choosers and non-choosers, in the immediate and delayed testing conditions Measure Statistic C order clasp knife SE O/U Value Jackknife SE NRI Value Jackknife SE Choosers Non-choosers Immediate Delay Immediate Delay 0. 01 0. 04 0. 00 0. 01 0. 09 0. 19 0. 02 0. 03 0. 10 0. 17 0. 03 0. 05 0. 03 0. 04 0. 01 0. 02 -0. 08 0. 01 0. 02 0. 04 0. 02 0. 02 0. 02 0. 02 ?Immediate Choosers Delayed Choosers 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 n the immediate condition. This produces differences between conditions in three measures of the CA relation the visual appearance of calibration function, the O/U statistic, and the NRI statistic. First, the calibration curve for the immediate condition flattens out in the lower half(a) of the confidence scale, rather than following the ideal func- tion. Further, the curve for the immediate condition shifts from overconfidence in the higher confidence intervals to underconfidence in the lower confidence intervals, a pattern not observed in the delayed condition.In addition to pro- ducing a visual flattening of the curve, this transition from overconfidence to underconfidence has importa nt effects on two of the statistical measures of the CA relationship. It drives the immediate condition O/U statistic toward its mid-point (i. e. , 0). Consequently, although the immediate condition curve exhibits pronounced underconfidence and overconfidence at the relevant extremes of the confidence scale, this is not reflected in the O/U statistic for that condition, thereby exaggerating the apparent difference in overconfidence between conditions.Finally, as evidenced by the NRI statistics (Table 2), it reduces the general level of discrimination provided by confidence in the immediate condition. This discrepancy between conditions at the lower confidence extremes is addressed further in the Discussion. The second difference between the CA relations for choosers in the delayed and immediate conditions is evident in the diagnosticity ratios reported for each confidence interval (Table 1).Consistent with the reported overall drop in identification accuracy associated with the de layed con- dition, the degree of diagnosticity at each confidence interval is greater in the immediate than delayed condition. Further, although no difference in overconfidence is appar- ent between conditions in the higher confidence brackets, the difference in diagnosticity persists. Nonetheless, as outlined above, the finding of increased diagnosticity with increased confidence is consistent (for choosers) across conditions.In sum, the CA relations observed for choosers in the two retention interval conditions differ in call of the Confidence 100 80 60 40 20 ?Immediate Non-Choosers Delayed Non-Choosers 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Confidence Fig. 1 Confidenceaccuracy (CA) calibration curves for choosers (upper panel) and non-choosers (lower panel) in the delayed and immediate testing conditions. Error bars represent standard errors draw inferences in conditions where data violate assump- tions of conventional inferential testing techniques (Sheskin, 2004).Because the jackknife means repl icated the original values in every case, only the original values are reported. Inspection of the calibration functions, together with the O/U statistics (Table 2), suggests greater overconfidence for the delayed compared to the immediate condition. However, two aspects of the calibration information justify qualification of this general observation. First, for the two highest confidence categories, the standard error bars for the two functions overlap suggesting no meaningful dif- ference in over/underconfidence.The employ value of this similarity at the higher confidence intervals is addressed in the Discussion. Second, the overall difference in over- confidence between conditions is, in fact, exaggerated by underconfidence in the lower half of the calibration curve 123 % Correct % Correct 344 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34337347 ?general overconfidence and discriminability, due primarily to the trend toward underconfidence at low confidence levels in the immediate condition. However, in the upper half of the confidence scale, the conditions produce highly similar calibration functions.For non-choosers, both retention interval conditions produced the typically weak CA relations observed in previous CA calibration research. Further, any variations in diagnosticity between confidence levels were small and un magisterial in both conditions. While this absence of resolution susceptibility normally be taken as an indication that a confident rejection should not be given any special status, this needs to be considered in the context of accuracy rates for rejections usually being high. Thus, from an use perspective, provided the conditions are such that non-chooser accuracy is high (e. . , unbiased lineup instructions, entire encoding conditions), it is important to note that a highly confident rejection is as good a guide to (in)accuracy as a confident ID. significantly also, an unconfident rejection is also likely to be as accu- rate as a confident ID. The CA correl ation patterns are generally in line with previous research (e. g. , Lindsay et al. , 1998 Sporer et al. , 1995). CA correlations of moderate strength were found for choosers in both the immediate (r (405) = 0. 32, p . 001) and delayed conditions (r (209) = 0. 41, p . 001).While these values lie toward the high end of typically reported CA correlations, the relationships are still only moderate in size. Consistent with previous research, correlations for non-choosers were weak and non-significant in both the immediate (r (286) = . 09, ns) and delayed conditions (r (163) = . 06, ns). DISCUSSION While the dominant perspective in eyewitness identifica- tion research has been that the CA relationship is, at best, a weak one, recent researchunderpinned by theoretically motivated changes in design and psychoanalysis techniqueshas demonstrated meaningful CA relationships when certain pre-conditions are met.The present study extends this research, providing an important test of the bound ary conditions of the CA relation. magnetic variation in retention interval is (a) theoretically linked to variation in memory quality (and, thus, confidence and accuracy), (b) typical in the forensic setting, and (c) abnormal in psychological investigations of the CA relation. Further, the emphasis placed on confidence when assessing the reliability of identification evidence in the forensic setting makes the effect of varied retention interval on the CA relationship an issue of applied and theoretical relevance.The most striking feature of our examination of the effect of retention interval on the CA relationship is the consistency of the findings across retention interval con- ditions. Consistent with previous calibration research in the eyewitness and face recognition paradigms (e. g. , Brewer & Wells, 2006 Juslin et al. , 1996 Sauerland & Sporer, 2009 Weber & Brewer, 2003, 2004, 2006), confidence and accuracy were meaningfully related for choosers in both the immediate and de layed conditions, peculiarly in the upper half of the confidence scale.Further, both conditions show systematic increases in diagnosticity with increased witness confidence. Compared to the immediate condition, the delayed condition demonstrated an increase in general overconfidence and a decrease in the absolute levels of diagnosticity. However, such differences are equally likely to occur when retention interval is held constant but target stimuli or instructional bias are varied (e. g. , Brewer & Wells, 2006).Of primary importance is the finding that the fundamental nature of the CA relationship, as evidenced by the shape of the calibration functions and the systematic relationship between confidence and diagnosticity, did not vary meaningfully between conditions. As Bruck and Poole (2002) note, albeit it in a different context, when assessing consistency across conditions, patterns of findings are often more informative than individual numbers. While our conclusions may be simi lar to those of Juslin et al. 1996) in that CA calibration was still evident when the retention interval was extended, our findings add sig- nificantly to our understanding of the effect of retention interval on the CA relation. Whereas there was no evidence that Juslin et al. s retention interval manipulation affected memory strength, our manipulation clearly affected rec- ognition memory performance and yet evidence of CA calibration persisted. Moreover, CA calibration was evi- dent at the longer retention interval in our study, despite the absence of several methodological features contained in Juslin et al. s research that may have buttressed the CA calibration detected at their longer retention interval. This suggests that these idiosyncrasies were not sufficient to affect the CA association. Additionally, by providing data from a field setting using multiple sets of encoding and test materials, our study provides an important pointer to the likely generality of the above concl usions. The improved diagnosticity in both retention interval conditions evident at the upper confidence levels has significant forensic implications.Highly confident identi- fications, when compared to those made with low confidence, are likely to have a greater impact on police investigations and jury decision making. For example, in the absence of other get evidence, police are more likely to proceed with a case given a highly confident identification than given an identification made with low confidence. Further, compared to an identification made with low confidence, an identification made with high confidence is likely to be more persuasive in the 123 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34337347 345 courtroom, and thus exert a more pronounced effect on juror assessments of likely guilt. Thus, it is reassuring that the identification decisions likely to exert the greatest influence in criminal justice system are those for which (a) diagnosticity is greatest and (b) there was no significant v ariation in CA relationship associated with increased retention interval. We emphasize here, of course, that we are talking only about relationships detected when confi- dence was measured and recorded forthwith after the identification, and not when opportunities for influencing confidence judgments had occurred.A potentially interesting difference between the CA relations obtained in the two conditions presents in the lower half of the confidence scale for the chooser curves. As previously outlined, while the immediate condition curve exhibited underconfidence in the lower confidence levels, the delayed condition curve maintained its resem- blance to the ideal function (i. e. , low confidence ratings were accompanied by equivalently poor identification performance). As noted earlier, confidence judgments may be shaped not only by memory strength but also by various non-memorial factors.It may be the case that, because the immediate condition provided virtually no time for the mem ory identify to degrade, very low confidence estimates in this condition reflected the influence of delusory meta- cognitive inferences. In contrast, the delayed condition allowed for significantly greater degradation in memory trace, and, consequently, a greater drop in identification accuracy than did the immediate condition. In the delayed condition, very low confidence was perhaps more likely to reflect poor memory quality and, consequently, predict very poor performance.Thus, in this condition, confidence and accuracy corresponded more closely at the lower confidence levels, and the overall level of confidence-based discrimination increased (as evidenced by the NRI statis- tics). The improved resolution associated with the longer retention interval in the present study supports claims made by Lindsay et al. (2000, 1998) that the CA relation (and, in particular, resolution) is likely to be most evident in con- ditions that produce greatest variability in witnesses memory stren gth.However, given the low number of data points for these confidence categories, any conclusions must be tentative. Moreover, from an applied perspective, the data clearly show that low confidence identifications are associated with low accuracy (regardless of the exis- tence of over- or underconfidence). We should note three features of this study that might perhaps have influenced the pattern of results obtained. First, despite email reminders to participants in the delay condition, there was still significant attrition.If it turns out that those conscientious plentiful to respond were also more conscientiousand, importantly, effectivewhen deter- mining confidence judgments, then it is conjectural that the strength of the CA relation is overestimated in our delay condition. However, we know of no evidence that could sustain an argument either way on this issue. Second, our retention interval manipulation was confounded with method of responding. Participants in the immediate t est condition provided their responses during face-to-face interactions with the researcher, while delayed condition participants responded via computer.As previously noted, social influence can undermine the confidenceaccuracy relationship. However, given (a) the similarity of CA rela- tionships evident between conditions in this experiment and (b) the similarity in CA relationships between the imme- diate condition in this experiment and previous work using similar (i. e. , relatively short though not immediate) reten- tion intervals and non-face-to-face responding (Brewer & Wells, 2006 Weber & Brewer, 2003, 2004, 2006), there is no reason to believe that method of responding exerted a significant effect on the results obtained.Third, for ethical reasons the encoded event in our field study did not involve a crime. Whether this might influence the CA relationship is also not known, though there is no obvious reason why this variable should interact with retention interval. What we do know, of course, is that the most reliable determinant of variations in the degree of over/underconfidence is task difficulty (see Brewer, 2006 Weber & Brewer, 2004), with our various stimuli providing tasks of sufficient difficulty to produce over- rather than under-confidence and, predict- ably, greater overconfidence in the delay condition.In sum, this research asked Does an increase in retention interval undermine the meaningful CA relationships reported in recent research? These results suggest not, at least not for retention intervals in the range used here. For choosers in both the delayed and immediate conditions, increased confidence was associated with increased proba- ble accuracy. While this finding is encouraging, one important caveat is required. Although retention interval did not affect the CA relationship observed, many factors capable of distorting the CA relation over time in the forensic setting (e. g. confirming feedback/interaction with co-witnesses, repeat ed post-event questioning) were not addressed in our approach. It would be premature to suggest that, in the forensic setting, confidence-based discrimina- tion of accuracy will not ever vary with increased retention interval. Simply increasing retention does not, by itself, seem to dampen the CA relation, but increased retention intervals may be associated with increased exposure to other factors likely to affect the relationship between con- fidence and accuracy. Moreover, it should be noted that retention intervals long enough to reduce identification accuracy to chance levels (i. . , likely much longer than in this study) would constrain variation in accuracy, reducing the extent to which confidence can discriminate accurate from inaccurate identification decisions. 123 346 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34337347 ?Acknowledgments This research was supported by grant DP0556876 from the Australian Research Council and a Flinders Research Grant. We are grateful to Monica Beshara, Megan Cant, Danielle Chant, Kelly Ferber, Suzana Freegard, Caitlin Hithcock, Michaela OKeefe, Lucy Pillay, Carla Raphael, Nancy Whitaker, and Anneke Woods for their assistance with data collection. REFERENCESBothwell, R. K. , Deffenbacher, K. A. , & Brigham, J. C. (1987). Correlations of eyewitness accuracy and confidence Optimality hypothesis revisited. daybook of utilize Psychology, 72, 691 695. Bradfield, A. L. , & Wells, G. L. (2000). The perceived validity of eyewitness identification testimony A test of the five Biggers criteria. Law & Human Behavior, 24, 581594. Bradfield, A. L. , Wells, G. L. , & Olson, E. A. (2002). The damaging effect of confirming feedback on the relation between eyewitness certainty and identification accuracy. Journal of utilize Psy- chology, 87, 112120. Brewer, N. (2006).Uses and abuses of eyewitness identification confidence. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 11, 323. Brewer, N. , & Burke, A. (2002). Effects of testimony inconsistencies and eyewitness con fidence on mock-juror judgements. Law & Human Behavior, 26, 353364. Brewer, N. , Keast, A. , & Rishworth, A. (2002). The confidence- accuracy relationship in eyewitness identification The effects of reflection and disconfirmation on correlation and calibration. Journal of observational Psychology Applied, 8, 4456. Brewer, N. , Weber, N. , & Semmler, C. (2007). A role for theory in eyewitness identification research.In R. C. L. Lindsay, D. F. Ross, J. D. Read, & M. P. Toglia (Eds. ), The handbook of eyewitness psychology quite a little II. retrospect for people (pp. 210 218). Mahwah, NJ Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Brewer, N. , & Wells, G. L. (2006). The confidence-accuracy relationship in eyewitness identification Effects of lineup instructions, functional size and target-absent base rates. Journal of experimental Psychology Applied, 12, 1130. Bruck, M. , & Poole, D. A. (2002). Introduction to the special issue on forensic developmental psychology. Developmental Review, 22, 3313 33. Busey, T. A. , Tunnicliff, J. , Loftus, G. R. & Loftus, E. F. (2000). Accounts of the confidence-accuracy relation in recognition memory. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 7, 2648. Clark, S. E. , Howell, R. , & Davey, S. L. (2008). Regularities in eyewitness identification. Law & Human Behavior, 32, 187203. Cutler, B. L. , & Penrod, S. D. (1995). Mistaken identification The eyewitness, psychology, and the law. novel York Cambridge University Press. Cutler, B. L. , Penrod, S. D. , & Stuve, T. E. (1988). Jury decision making in eyewitness identification cases. Law & Human Behavior, 12, 4156. Deffenbacher, K. A. , Bornstein, B. H. , McGorty, E. K. , & Penrod, S. 2008). Forgetting the once-seen face Estimating the strength of an eyewitnesss memory representation. Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied, 14, 139150. Deffenbacher, K. A. , & Loftus, E. F. (1982). Do jurors share a common understanding concerning eyewitness behavior? Law & Human Behavior, 6, 1530. Ebbinghaus, H. (1964) . Memory A contribution to experimental psychology. unsanded York Dover (Original work published 1895). Egan, J. P. (1958). Recognition memory and the operating charac- teristic (No. Tech. Rep. No. AFCRC-TN-5851). Hearing and Communication Laboratory, atomic number 49 University Bloomington. Fleet, M.L. , Brigham, J. C. , & Bothwell, R. K. (1987). The confidence- accuracy relationship The effects of confidence-accuracy and choosing. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17, 171187. Green, D. M. , & Swets, J. A. (1966). note detection theory and psychophysics. New York Wiley. Innocence Project. (2009). Innocence project. Retrieved March 15, 2009, from http//www. innocenceproject. org/about/index. php. Juslin, P. , Olsson, N. , & Winman, A. (1996). Calibration and diagnosticity of confidence in eyewitness identification Com- ments on what can be inferred from the low confidence-accuracy correlation.Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22, 13041316. Ka ssin, S. M. (1985). Eyewitness identification retrospective self- awareness and the accuracy-confidence manipulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 878893. Kassin, S. M. , Rigby, S. , & Castillo, S. R. (1991). The accuracy- confidence correlation in eyewitness testimony Limits and extensions of the retrospective self-awareness effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 698707. Koriat, A. , Lichtenstein, S. , & Fischhoff, B. (1980). Reasons for confidence.Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Learn- ing & Memory, 6, 107118. Lindsay, D. S. , Nilsen, E. , & Read, J. D. (2000). Witnessing-condition heterogeneity and witnesses versus investigators confidence in the accuracy of witnesses identification decisions. Law & Human Behavior, 24, 685697. Lindsay, D. S. , Read, J. D. , & Sharma, K. (1998). Accuracy and confidence in person identification The relationship is strong when witnessing conditions vary widely. Psychological Science, 9, 215218. Lindsa y, R. C. L. , Wells, G. L. , & Rumpel, C. M. (1981). Can people detect eyewitness-identification accuracy within and across situations?Journal of Applied Psychology, 66, 7989. Macmillan, N. A. , & Creelman, C. D. (1991). sensing theory A users guide. New York Cambridge University Press. Mosteller, F. , & Tukey, J. W. (1968). Data analysis including statistics. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronsen (Eds. ), The handbook of social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 80203). Reading, PA Addison-Wesley. Neil v. Biggers, 409 U. S. 188 (1972). Pike, G. , Brace, N. , & Kynan, S. (2002). The visual identification of suspects Procedures and practice. (Briefing Note 2/02). Lon- don Home Office. Sauer, J. D. , Brewer, N. , & Weber, N. (2008).Multiple confidence estimates as indices of eyewitness memory. Journal of Exper- imental Psychology General, 137, 528547. Sauerland, M. , & Sporer, S. (2009). Fast and confident Postdicting eyewitness identification accuracy in a field study. Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied, 15, 4662. Schacter, D. L. (1999). The seven sins of memory. American Psychologist, 54, 182203. Shaw, J. S. (1996). Increases in eyewitness confidence resulting from postevent questioning. Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied, 2, 126146. Shaw, J. S. , & McClure, K. A. (1996). Repeated postevent uestioning can lead to elevated levels of eyewitness confidence. Law & Human Behavior, 20, 629653. Sheskin, D. (2004). Handbook of parametric and non-parametric statistical procedures (3rd ed. ). Boca Raton, FL Chapman & Hall/CRC. Sporer, S. L. , Penrod, S. D. , Read, D. , & Cutler, B. L. (1995). Choosing, confidence, and accuracy A meta-analysis of the confidence-accuracy relation in eyewitness identification studies. Psychological Bulletin, 118, 315327. Van Zandt, T. (2000). ROC curves and confidence judgments in recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, 582600. 23 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34337347 347 ?Vickers, D. (1979). Decision processes in visual perception. New York Academic Press. Weber, N. , & Brewer, N. (2003). The effect of judgment type and confidence scale on confidence-accuracy calibration in face recognition. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 490499. Weber, N. , & Brewer, N. (2004). Confidence-accuracy calibration in absolute and relative face recognition judgements. Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied, 10, 156172. Weber, N. , & Brewer, N. (2006). Positive versus negative face recognition decisions Confidence, accuracy and response latency.Applied cognitive Psychology, 20, 1731. Wells, G. L. (1993). What do we know about eyewitness identifica- tion? American Psychologist, 48, 553571. Wells, G. L. , & Olson, E. A. (2002). Eyewitness identification Information gain from incriminating and exonerating behaviors. Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied, 8, 155167. Wells, G. L. , Small, M. , Penrod, S. , Malpass, R. S. , Fulero, S. M. , & Brimacombe, C. A. E. (1998). Eyewitness identificati on proce- dures Recommendations for lineups and photo spreads. Law & Human Behavior, 22, 603647.

Law Enforcement Agencies Essay

Identify three federal law enforcement agencies. Roles and responsibilities and comparison of local and state law enforcement duties, functions, and their two of import differences.The duties, functions, and responsibilities of Local Law Enforcement agencies are as follows They are required to fetch law violators, perform routine patrol, check up ons horrors, enforce traffic laws (including parking violations), generate crowd and traffic control for example parades and other huge usual events. Today they also have duties such as Performing the duties of coroners, evaluate assessors, tax collectors, keepers of county jails, court attendants, and executors of poisonous and civil processes, as well as law enforcement officers.The duties, functions, and responsibilities of State Police Agencies are as follows patrol gloomy towns and state highways, regulate traffic, and have the primary responsibility to enforce most state laws. They also carry out many duties for local law agencies, such as the managing of state training academies, criminal identification systems, and crime laboratories. Some of the differences between the state and the local police are as follows State police cooperates with an assortment of law enforcement agencies such as local police, the highway patrol, and park or forest rangers. Really the differences between a sheriff and a police officer vary slightly from state to state, which sometimes lead to confusion.Three federal law enforcement agencies are Federal post of Investigation (FBI), Drug Administration or Agency (DEA), and the Alcohol tobacco Firearms (ATF). The FBI is a threat-based, intelligence driven national security organization, their principal inquiring arm of the U.S. Department of Justice and a full member of the U.S. watchword Community,(FBI 2010). These agents are dedicated men and women of the DEA are bending hard to investigate and arrest the traffickers of the dangerous drugs. These agents also help keep our schools and neighborhoods safe and secure.The function of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) seeks to reduce alcohol smuggling and contraband cigarette trafficking activity, divest criminal and terrorist organizations of monies derived from this illicit activity and significantly reduce tax revenue losings to the States, (ATF 2010). These agents are also reducing violent crime, and enforcing the Federal explosives laws and regulations. These agents are working to enforce Federal firearms laws and regulations.All these agents whether local, state or federal work together to protect the United Sates residents from all criminals activities.

Coal Industrys Ethical Analysis Environmental Sciences Essay

The zip perseverance is much relevant today than of built-inly time before. A As late applied science evolves, we wear fetch an cypher dependent society triping change magnitude demand that we neer anticipated or could h grizzly predicted. vitality has become a necessity in virtually some(prenominal)(prenominal) country of keep from agribusiness, transferral, waste aggregation, information applied science and communications all of which ar unfavorable constituents for intimately functional societies. The animation pains is make up of legion(predicate) different subsets, which implicate crude oil, rude(a) mess up, sear, atomic, and renewable ability. Harmonizing to the joined States get-up-and-go Information Administration, the oil and gas industry histories for most of the market, providing to a large(p)er extent than 60 % of the entire zero consumed. The sear industry follows, claiming 20 % of the industry s market portion ( United States postal co de Information Administration ) . These industries lawsuit uninterrupted argument sing their production and gross revenues, particularly present in the United States. The United States is one of the foundation s biggest consumers of energy and the energy industry is the 3rd largest industry within our state ( recognise USA ) . This contention has generated a batch of pro action for this industry, out-of-pocket to the extend engagement and demand for energy as a whole. With much phrase being placed on energy efficiency and the purlieu, the media has heightened involvement and visibility by concentrating more on the negative facets and sensationalizing the issues that surround this industry. In this plane section we atomic number 18 traveling to draw a closer expression at the sear industry, look intoing both(prenominal) of the honourable issues associated with blacken. burn Industry A AThroughout write up ember has been an abundant and indispensable resource, par ticularly for us in the United States. We most normally use it to bring forrad electricity and heat. sear generates more than 42 % of our electricity, with around 600 blacken-fueled power deedss countrywide either procedure correct as straight and indirectly using over 550,000 persons in the United States entirely. ( America s Power ) . We can non ignore the situation that ember is a study subscriber to our society and close everyone benefits from its employment nevertheless, un alike most other industries, combust faces a battalion of ethical issues. These issues can be broken down into three classs, environmental, societal, and sustainability.Coal creates numerous a(prenominal) challenges for the environment. The most noteworthy 1 has to make with air pollution and specifically carbon emanations. When burned, coal emits high degrees of C dioxide, the chief nursery gas that causes pla scratchary heating. It excessively emits other toxic pollutants to the air when burned which implicate sulfur dioxide, N oxides, particulate affair, and quicksilver ( Union of Concerned Scientists ) . In add-on to fouling the air, coal can besides foul H2O beginnings, in general during the waste burster procedure. Coal besides creates immense sums of solid waste, which include fly ash and coal sludge. This waste contains arsenic, quicksilver, Cr, Cd, and other metals that are all harmful to the environment ( Union of Concerned Scientists ) . These are merely a few of the umpteen voices of the negative environmental impacts associate to coal. AThe coal industry besides faces many societal challenges nevertheless, at this clip we are merely traveling to concentrate on the wellness jeopardies related to coal and employee preventative. Working in the coal industry environment for an drawn-out power point of clip can do legion wellness jobs, such as respiratory issues ( bronchitis, asthma onslaughts, etc. ) , black lung, congestive bosom failure, and some casts of malignant neoplastic disease. Typically workers get these diseases through the extraction, readying, burning, waste storage, and transit of coal ( SourceWatch ) . In add-on, the general populace can besides be affected by emanations from coal-fueled power works. Employee arctic is another societal foreboding that surrounds the coal industry and justifiably so. This type of industry involves the usage of well-grounded equipment in unsafe environments, which creates some(prenominal) safety jeopardies. Fire, detonation, the release of gas and morphologic failure are some of the other safety hazards associated with coal. Overall, mining is a really unsafe occupation necessitating workers to be good trained, extremely prepared and cognizant of their work environment at all times.Finally accord s discuss sustainability. There are recent figures that show the coal industry is in diminution. This is the take of new authorities ordinances and regulations, which are pursua nce to diminish C emanations ( Plumer ) . The industry is seeking to circuit to these concerns. Continuous bestments in engineering make up dramatically reduced or eliminated many of the environmental impacts traditionally associated with the usage of coal ( World Coal Association ) . other ground for the recent diminution is the recent inflow of inexpensive pictorial gas to the United States ( Plumer ) . A With the issues and challenges confronting the coal industry today, it appears the hereafter of coal expressions reasonably inexorable.Pressures Confronting Coal IndustryDue to pollution and other dangers caused by the coal industry, environmental assorts and authorities ordinances are conveying force per building block area. Both environmental groups and authorities ordinances are forcing the coal industry to be dry cleaner by bring forthing energy that creates small injury for the environment. As a consequence of these force per unit areas, the coal industry may lead itself losing cyberspace incomes or may even elapse itself being replaced by beginnings of cleaner energy.A The most popular environmental group forcing the coal industry is the Greenpeace group, as they are the largest independent direct-action environmental organisation in the universe ( Greenpeace.org ) . Some actions by Greenpeace include the start of an Energy Revolution which includes a Quit Coal Campaign . Harmonizing to the Greenpeace web site, this run encourages renewable energy and battles to extinguish the usage of coal because, a 3rd of all C dioxide emissions come from firing coal ( Greenpeace.org ) . Along with Greenpeace, on that point are many other environmental groups that have been prosecuting the coal industry for many sexagenarian ages and harmonizing to recent articles in The unexampled York Times, these activist groups have moved in for the putting to death ( Coal ) .Militant groups in resistance to the coal industry can even be found on the Virginia tech campus. Greenpeace at Virginia technical school and VT beyond Coal are two major groups on campus that are contending for a bankrupt environment. Harmonizing to the web site of VT beyond Coal, the campus power works burns 46,000 dozenss of coal ( VT Beyond Coal ) . VT Beyond Coal has started a entreat that is committed to transitioning VT s coal works to coulomb % clean and renewable energy by 2020. A This request to Invent a clean hereafter is portion of a motion that involves over 60 universities in the United States and the motion has ends to change over campuses to clean energy ( VT Beyond Coal ) .Along with force per unit areas from militant groups, ordinances imposed by the Environmental Protection Agency are going stricter and progressively complex. A recent article from Yahoo finance studies that the Environmental Protection Agency is presently working with President Obama to increase ordinances on coal ( Coal Stocks Fall sharply as more(pre nominal) Regulations Feared ) . A Yahoo Finance besides states that the EPA has imposed bounds on pollutants such as C dioxide, quicksilver and S dioxide, which have made it more expensive for public-service corporation companies to fire coal for energy coevals. As a consequence of the ordinances, some coal workss have experienced closings due to increase operating costs. Along with doing coal works retirement, the expectancy of increased ordinance besides led Yahoo Finance to describe that coal stocks across the board fell aggressively ( Coal Stocks Fall Sharply as More Regulations Feared ) .Although coal has seen a diminution in popularity, studies from The New York Times have revealed that the sublunary demand for coal is expected to turn to 8.9 billion dozenss by 2016 ( Coal ) . Even though there is quieten demand for coal, The New York Times reports that coal is on the diminution and provides about a 3rd of the state s power, merely four old ages ago it was brin g outing about half ( Coal ) . Activist organisations every bit good as ordinances have contri thated to the diminution in coal s laterality and the coal industry may occur its companies losing net incomes or even happen itself being replaced by cleaner beginnings of energy if coal can non be more environmentally friendly. A incarnate Social office ActivitiesBecause there are a figure of ethical issues confronting the coal industry, coal companies have been working to better the societal and environmental impact of their activities. Peabody Energy and Arch Coal are good known in the industry for their impressive corporeal societal activities.Peabody Energy is one of the largest private domain coal companies worldwide. It is Peabody Energy s mission to be a starring(predicate) worldwide manufacturer and provider of sustainable energy solutions that enable economical prosperity and a better quality of life ( Peabody Energy Corporate Responsibility ) . As portion of their c orporate duty, they have been turn toing issues in employee, economic, public, and environmental duties.Peabody stresses its pencil eraser Vision of forestalling incidents, occupational unwellnesss, and belongings harm. Because of the enormousness the fraternity places on safety, attempts have been made in Peabody s planetary workss to increase safety in the workplace by using studies and appraisals to have feedback from their employees. Peabody initiated the installment of an secret communications musical arrangement to ease communicating amidst mineworkers belowground and mineworkers stationed above land in 2011. This betterment gave the belowground mineworkers instant(prenominal) entree to deliver squads in the event of an incident. Peabody has about 65 safety Chamberss installed at Peabody s belowground operations with supplies such as O, nutrient, and H2O, in the event of an exigency ( Peabody Energy CSR Report 24 ) . Keeping safety as the company s extreme precede nce, Peabody offers a preparation plan, Safety a Way of Life which is directed towards employees to easy transition into Peabody s safety systems and procedures.A A A A A A A In add-on to employee duty, Peabody Energy believes in the importance of continue the environment and utilizing sustainable patterns. The cardinal rule of their mission is to go forth the land in a status equal to or better than we found it ( Peabody Energy CSR Report 34 ) . A Peabody has been happening better patterns to reconstruct lands, wildlife home grounds, hardwood woods, and wetlands. In 2011 Peabody restored more than 5,100 estates of land and planted more than 360,000 trees ( Peabody Energy CSR Report 36 ) . Presently, Peabody has a recycling and waste direction plan intended for the reuse of the waste produced from coal barb activities. The company was able to increase the volume of recycled lubricating oil by more than 100 per centum ( Peabody Energy CSR Report 38 ) . As a planetary lo ss leader in clean coal excavation solutions, Peabody has been researching and puting in better patterns related to clean coal engineerings in the countries of nursery gas strength, emanations strength, and C policy. An illustration of their beneath victorious is with the U.S Geological visual modality in 2006. A Peabody and the U.S Geological Survey combined attempts to mensurate methane content and desorption testing in big prove mines ( Peabody Energy CSR Report 39 ) .A A A A A A A Like Peabody Energy, Arch Coal has been concentrating on the same countries of duties in safety and environmental conditions. Like the attempts of Peabody, safety is a precedence to Arch Coal therefore the company has been working to happen betterments of doing the working environment safer for employees. The company promotes the Perfect Zero rule of zippo hurts and zero environmental misdemeanors. Harmonizing to Arch Coal s CSR Report, the company has invested $ 14 million in a bipartisan c ommunicating and tracking system to forestall accidents in belowground mines ( Arch Coal, Inc. ) . Arch Coal has been doing attempts to happen more advanced coal engineerings solutions that target planetary nursery emanations and the accrue of airborne emanations.Coal companies are more active in their corporate societal duties than of all time earlier. Because the industry itself is so unsafe for both employees. Coal companies have been working hard to supply the right environment and resources for employees. Furthermore, because the environment is harmfully affected by the activities of coal companies, companies are taking more inaugural to concentrate and take duty for their actions.Investing Policy RecommendationsVirginia tech needs to take corporate societal duty and ethical issues of the coal industry into history when finding its investing determinations. Energy from coal is under a batch of examination in the populace center since it is perceived as dirty and outdated e ngineering. With the hereafter of energy indicating towards clean engineering such as solar and weave energy, Virginia technical school needs to be on the head. They need to put themselves as a taking donnish mental home that is traveling off from coal and into clean engineering. The motto for the establishment is Invent the Future ( www.vt.edu ) , hence taking the enterprise to be in front of the curve.A A A A A A A When puting the schools endowment financess, it is of import to take ethical issues into history but at the same clip non take a fiscal loss. The great thing about non puting in coal but other engineering is that Virginia Tech is taking ethical issues into history but are besides concentrating the financess into an country that is turning at an exponential rate and leave alone take to fiscal additions instead than losingss.A A A A A A A As a public establishment there is a changeless oculus on Virginia Tech s every move, whether it be policy with pupils, academic r ankings, but most significantly where the move over fund decides to put their money. With that being said, it is acceptable to take a fiscal loss because you have to take the social force per unit areas into history. Virginia Tech is closely related to the coal industry, with a coal power works on campus and being located in SouthWest Virginia where the environing countries are laboured in coal and employees many local citizens, so it is a gnarly pick to non put in coal. Therefore both sides go out be showing their sides in the argument over the investing in coal. Virginia Tech will hold the local coal countries experiencing as though the University is non facial expression out for them and so there will be the group that is in favour of clean engineering and has been seeking to acquire the school to happen a new beginning for power. By puting in other engineering, they will be seting money into companies that are developing new engineerings that Virginia Tech will be able to uti lize to tackle their ain energy for usage on campus and in the environing countries in the hereafter. As they focus their investings into cleaner energy and taking ethical grounds over fiscal engineering, the public oculus will alter and they will see Virginia Tech as a leader in the hereafter of energy.Investing RecommendationsWhen looking back at our body politic it is impossible to bury our love matter with fogy fuels. Fossil fuels, and more specifically coal, have been some of the biggest employers and gross bring forthing industries in the responsibility. In 2006, the entire value of fossil fuels mined in Virginia was about $ 2.4 billion. A Coal accounted for about 72 per centum ( $ 1.7 billion ) of this entire value, season natural gas accounted for about 28 per centum ( $ 660.3 million ) , and oil less than 1 per centum ( $ 1.1 million ) ( Virginia subdivision of Mines Minerals and Energy ) . In recent old ages, harmonizing to Virginia relate for Coal and Research or V EPT, the entire sum of coal produced in the state has been a little more than one billion dozenss , still a immense figure despite the push for new jet-propelled plane energy ( VEPT ) . In Virginia, production has been around 30 to forty million dozenss, largely in the southwesterly coalfields ( VEPT ) . A However, coal production has diminish in the province to around 30 million systematically. Our group would get Virginia Tech to non put in fossil fuels and specifically coal excavation as coal monetary values have decreased while the costs for obtaining and runing mines have increased. This is due to a figure of factors, one of the most of import is the tendency of coal excavation traveling westward to provinces like Wyoming where excavation is cheaper and easier due to the geological conditions. One major job is that about all coal mines in the Appalachian country are belowground mines in contrast to their western opposite numbers which tend to be surface mines leting for easier and cheaper extraction. Virginia besides has had a long history of coal excavation which has led to the depletion of easy gettable reservoirs coercing excavation houses to look for untapped militias in potentially more dearly-won and hard locations ( VEPT ) .There are many effects attributed to the usage of fossil fuels, from wellness concerns such as higher(prenominal) rates of asthma in countries with heavy pollution, but besides the potentially annihilating effects of planetary heating ( M.A. Palmer 148 ) . These are merely a few of the ethical concerns confronting an industry every bit controversial as the coal industry. Specifically, the coal industry creates many issues for the environments that contain coal mines. Coal mines generate big sums of solid waste particularly when sing that several coal excavation companies engage in the pattern of mountaintop remotion. Mountaintop excavation uses explosives to collapse the coal seams and transform what would hold been belo wground excavation to a mannikin of surface excavation. This is a common method of excavation in the Appalachian Mountains. Surveies have shown that mountaintop excavation has had really serious effects for the environment. One of the biggest impacts of this signifier of excavation is the taint of local water partings. This is caused by puting the unsought stuffs created by exposing the coal seam in vales or filler holes which necessarily ends up polluting watercourses that finally flow into the watershed. Exposure to these watercourses have been shown to take to hospitalization for a assortment of wellness concerns including Ratess of mortality, lung malignant neoplastic disease, every bit good as chronic bosom, lung and kidney disease are besides increased ( M.A. Palmer 148 ) .A A A A A A A A A A Alternatively of puting in more untapped militias our group would alternatively look towards more renewable resources to cover our energy demands. The energy produced in Virginia hi stories for less than half the entire energy consumed in the province taking to the obvious decision that the province relies on other beginnings to supply energy. A Based on estimations by The U.S. Energy Information Administration, Virginia Energy ingestion was estimated to be 2,558 trillion BTU while the energy produced as fossil fuels mined in Virginia energy consumed as about 28 % of entire ingestion including all energy signifiers non merely. In Virginia Coal-fired power workss remains the largest en of electrical power coevals in the province with 45 % ( Virginia Department of Mines and Minerals and Energy ) .DecisionAfter reexamining the ethical issues, force per unit areas, and societal duty activities we have concluded that although the coal industry is profitable, it would be unethical for Virginia Tech s gift to put in the industry. By traveling off of the guideword Invent the Future, we recommend that Virginia Tech take into history the ethical picks in cleaner eng ineering, hence puting in a cleaner hereafter for both the school and environing countries.

Pillsbury Case Marketing

Mike Johnson Pillsbury Case Beth G eachant 1) What atomic number 18 the challenges that Ivan Guillen faces in his voice as marketing film director of the RBG business? As marketing manager of the RBG business, Ivan Guillen must propose a radical to repair Pillsbury refrigerate cook goods (RGB)s business performance. Since the refrigerated-biscuit product line consisted of 62% of RBGs whole sales and over 75% of the companys profits, Guillen assemble it capture to alter this segment in the market.Proposing this idea to GMCC would require Guillen to consider all the challenges he faces. Guillen will keep up to discover a strategy to sum up household penetration since it has fallen to 24% in the past a couple of(prenominal) years. The lack in market penetration has caused a miniscule produce of only one percent in the past three years. In order for Guillen to affix the penetration percent, he will need to appraise the Kisses commercial. The assessment of this advertisement revealed the lack of effectiveness for discolouration mention and relevance. Introducing.Also, when reviewing the leveraging Drivers In Canada As Comp atomic number 18d To The US it is apparent that consumers are concerned with the role of the saccharide, the flavors offered, and the amount of cookies offered. Either Guillen is going to need to draw up a marketing plan that landresses these issues are alter the cookie in roughly way. Lastly, Guillen will have to conduct marketing investigate to understand the digression between Canadian and US markets. The Kisses commercial was adopted from the US and round changed for the Canadian market.Seeing as it failed to generate the projected annual growth of quint to seven percent, thither is a clear difference between the Canadian and US advertising markets. 2) What are consumer sixth senses (in general)? What founts of business challenges dissolve benefit from consumer insights? How are these insights obtained? Consumer i nsight is when a marketer researches un place/unmet needs in the grocery or a in the raw/better way to satisfy an be need. The job of the marketer is to analyze the information and capitalize on the identified need.There are two main types of research, quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative research revolves around the measurement and analysis of relationships between variables. Random sampling techniques, like questionnaires and surveys, provide marketers with results that can be generalized to a larger population. Qualitative research, on the other hand, takes on a to a greater extent understanding and conceptual approach. with focus groups, marketers can gather an in-depth understanding of consumer behavior.The more or less common type of research used at GMCC are the focus groups. Focus groups are where a small group of people have a moderated reciprocation about a marketing-oriented issue. The group past summarizes its opinions and eventually comes to a solution they get hold fit. Summarizing all of the opinions of the focus groups can aid in untried product development, dent messaging, and promotional campaigns. Another type of marketing research GMCC uses are concept tests. Concept tests are commonly used to remediate new product development and develop brand messaging.Concept tests provide an human body of the product, pricing information, instructions, and key benefits to a consumer in verbal or opthalmic form. The consumer then quantitatively evaluates the product by stating their degree of grease ones palms intent. Lastly, GMCC too performs creative testing in order to evaluate the effectiveness of ads. When an add is put through with(predicate) the creative test, they are being judged on their purchase intent, relevance, and brand linkage scores. Having a powerful add that influences the consumer can significantly increase brand recognition.This Kisses commercial that Pillsbury had launched in Canada did not meet its expectati ons repayable to the lack of creative testing. 3) Given the key learnings from the usage and attitude count on pp 6-7 of the case, what are the corresponding implications for what actions the team should take? (Format this into a graph of key learning, implication, action) Key Learning Implication Action Scratch baking is the dominant method of baking cookies in Canada. In Canada, 56% oven broil only from scratch. In the US, use of refrigerated dough is the most public baking method. The refrigerated dough market does not seem to have a strong presence in Canada. It seems as if people are either unaware of refrigerated dough or they just do not prefer it. Either research how to make refrigerated dough to a greater extent appealing to Canadian consumers or ignore the Canadian market and focus on the US market (since it has a stronger demand for refrigerated dough). Top four purchase drivers are the same in both countries. Convenience and taste are at the top of both lists. The tincture of the cookie dough is not valued as highly in Canada and kids have more of an influence in driving purchases. Clearly thither is a big gap between the reference perception in Canada and the United States. Canadian consumers are implying that they want a higher quality product and a product that is more convenient for children. Propose a marketing strategy that addresses the quality of the cookie or tushs children. Since children have a stronger influence in Canadian markets than US markets, reaching out to them could increase brand recognition and sales. Both users and lapsed users perceive refrigerated cookie dough as convenient.Lapsed agree that RBG cookies are convenient, but non-users do not rate them as convenient. Lapsed and current users agree on convenience, going away marketers to believe this is actually true. Non-users, however, are not receiving this message. Non-users in Canada are not as aware of the product as they should be. Reaching out to non-user s through ads and commercials can increase the convenience recognition for RBG cookies. If non-users considered the cookies convenient they would be more likely to purchase them. 4) Why did Guillen and his team conduct the in-home and discovery workshops?To learn out what? Conducting a qualitative research was proposed in order to get on a better understanding of consumer perceptions, beliefs, and feelings towards RBG cookies. The usage and attitude study envisioned the differences between Canada and the United States, whereas this study will determine which aspects of the baking go steady are most appealing to consumers. The ethnography study RBG conducted, In-home Immersions, sought to come through an in-depth understanding of personal motivations and actions towards a particular product. RBG entered the homes of two lapsed users and wo brand champions while the consumers were baking the good. During the visit, the marketers hoped to develop an understanding of the consumer- brand relationship, what surrounds it, the environment around it, and the bigger-picture influences. For example, RBG found out that when it came to feeding the family, the solutions had to be easy, quick, and pleasing to children. It also showed the sense of merriment that arises when baking occurs. Knowing this information could help propose the idea of implementing comfortable implications in future ads.The discovery workshop was similar to the ethnography study, chuck out the study group consisted of 18-27 consumers working together. This comfortable environment allows consumers to discuss opportunities and rap issues of the product. 6) What actions would you suggest that Guillen and his team take? a. What should their value proposition be? b. Which consumers should they target? Why? c. What should the brand messaging be? Guillen has numerous tough decisions forth of him when proposing his new marketing strategy.However, Guillen conducted a multitudinous of studies to provi de him some insight on what an appropriate solution would be. In terms of the product itself, there are many alterations that could be made. Children have more of an influence in Canadian markets than in US markets. Providing kid themed offerings could increase brand recognition and demand from children. Simple ideas such as adding famous cartoon characters or sports themes could sway a child to want RBG cookies. Also, adding new flavors/types of cookies could increase the width of customers.Providing healthier options, dietary restrictions (gluten free, low sodium), and new flavors would reach out to more consumers. Expanding new product development would also be benefit to brand recognition. Providing Pillsbury baking tools like cookie cutters, timers, oven mitts, and aprons would cause the experience of baking to be more enjoyable. Another recommendation to Guillen would be to re-new and strengthen relationships with consumers. In doing so, Guillen should breed the nostalgic an d experiential aspect.Through the in-home study, it has been concluded that baking introduces a sense of felicity in the kitchen. Having this perception instilled in a consumers mind may bend them to purchase the refrigerated dough for themselves or as a gift. Having a celebrity spokesperson influence consumers can have a confirmatory(p) impingement as well. In previous commercials, RBG cookies solely relied on the Pillsbury doughboy. Although he is a very recognizable character, maybe the consumers do not find him as trustworthy as they would a celebrity.The celebrity could stress the easiness, convenience, and homespun feeling RBG cookies provide. In-store display and packaging also has a significant impact on the consumer. Having a brand portrayed in a positive way gives the consumer the feeling that he or she is making the right choice. query showed that most purchases of refrigerated dough were out of impulse. Sales can scarce increase by strategically placing the produ ct to locations where consumers frequently buy on impulse. Increasing the visibility with the doughboy logo would have the consumers more likely opinion about the product.If the cookies are going to be strategically placed and visible, then they are going to need to have attractive packaging. Offering visitation packages with three different flavors would also allow consumers to have the fortune to crusade out new flavors. Offering different serving sizes and holiday themes also expands the horizon of consumer tastes and preferences. In the short run, investing in social media, advertisement, and a spokesperson is most beneficial action to take. It is a quick opportunity for consumers to be persuaded into purchasing the object.However, in the long run it would be most beneficial to introduce new product flavors and healthy and dietary confining options. By renewing and strengthening its relationship with existing and lapsed consumers, Pillsbury can increase household penetratio n. Changing the perception of the product in the minds of the consumer from nourishment to family activity/gift can influence the non-users to sample the product. Lastly, acknowledging new twenty-first century dynamics of healthy lifestyles and smaller servings can appeal to new market segments and eventually increase sales.